PYQ – MZOE-002: Animal Behaviour and Animal Welfare Ethics (Solved Q&A) | MZOE-002 | MSCZOO | M.Sc.Zoology | IGNOU | December 2024
M.Sc. (Zoology) (MSCZOO)
Term-End Examination
December, 2024
MZOE-002 : ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND ANIMAL WELFARE ETHICS
Time : 2 Hours| Maximum Marks : 50
Note: (i) Attempt any five questions.
(ii) All questions carry equal marks.
1. (i) Briefly differentiate between the following pairs of terms: (2+2 Marks)
(a) Innate behaviour and Acquired behaviour
Innate behaviour is inherited and present in animals from birth. It does not depend on learning or experience. This type of behaviour is automatic, consistent and similar in all members of a species. Examples of innate behaviour include reflex actions like blinking and fixed action patterns such as a spider spinning a web.
Acquired behaviour, on the other hand, develops through interaction with the environment and learning. It is not inherited and can change during an animal's life. This behaviour helps animals adjust to new conditions. Examples include training in dogs, birds learning to sing and animals getting used to human presence through habituation. Unlike innate behaviour, acquired behaviour varies among individuals.
(b) Preference tests and Motivation test
Preference tests are used to find out what an animal likes or chooses when given different options. These tests show the animal's favourite food, environment, or activity by offering choices and observing which one it selects more often. Preference tests help understand animal needs and improve their welfare.
Motivation tests measure how hard an animal is willing to work to get something it wants, like food or shelter. These tests show the strength of the animal's desire or need. For example, an animal might have to press a lever many times to get a reward. Motivation tests help to know how important a resource is for the animal's survival or comfort.
(ii) Define Fixed Action Pattern (FAP). Write the characteristics and evolutionary significance of FAP. (6 Marks)
Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) is an instinctive and genetically programmed sequence of behaviors that occurs in response to a specific stimulus, known as a sign stimulus or releaser. Once triggered, the entire behavioral sequence runs to completion without being influenced by further changes in the environment. FAPs are common in many animal species and helps them respond quickly to important situations like mating, feeding and defense.
Characteristics of Fixed Action Pattern
There are the following major characteristics of FAP:
- Innate and Stereotyped: FAP is not learned. It is inborn and performed in a uniform way by all members of a species.
- Triggered by Sign Stimulus: A specific external cue or releaser initiates the behavior. For example, the red spot on a parent gull's beak triggers pecking behavior in chicks.
- Once Started, Runs to Completion: After initiation, the behavior continues till the end even if the stimulus is removed midway.
- Species-Specific: FAP is generally unique to a species and helps in species identification during behaviors like mating or aggression.
- Independent of Learning and Experience: The individual does not require any prior exposure or learning to perform the behavior.
Evolutionary Significance of FAP
FAP has great evolutionary importance. Since it is innate and predictable, it ensures that animals perform essential behaviors correctly every time, which increases their chances of survival and reproduction. For example, many bird species have fixed action patterns related to feeding their young or mating rituals, which helps maintain species continuity. Because FAPs are genetically programmed, they can evolve slowly over generations, allowing species to adapt to their environment. These behaviors reduce the time needed for learning, which is useful in dangerous or fast-changing situations. Overall, Fixed Action Patterns play a crucial role in the natural selection process by providing animals with efficient and reliable responses to specific stimuli.
2. (i) Write a note on imprinting. (4 Marks)
Imprinting is a special kind of learning seen in some animals where a very young individual forms a strong and lasting bond with a specific object, usually a parent or caregiver. This process happens during a very short sensitive phase soon after birth or hatching and has a permanent effect on behaviour. The concept of imprinting was introduced by Konrad Lorenz in the 1930s through his famous experiments on greylag goose chicks.
In Lorenz's experiment, greylag goose chicks followed him as their "mother" because he was the first moving object they saw after hatching.
There are three main types of imprinting observed in animals:
- Filial Imprinting – This is when a young animal forms a bond with its parent and starts following it.
- Sexual Imprinting – In this case, young animals learn features of a suitable mate based on early experience.
- Song Imprinting – Found mostly in birds, where young birds learn to sing by hearing adults during a sensitive period.
Imprinting has some special features. It occurs only during a critical period and once formed, it is usually irreversible. It does not need reinforcement or repetition. This process is very important for survival, especially in birds and mammals, because it helps the young to recognize and stay close to the parent for food, safety and learning.
This early attachment through imprinting plays a big role in shaping later social and reproductive behavior in animals.
(ii) List four main types of conflict behaviours and discuss any two of them. (6 Marks)
Conflict behaviours are special behavioural patterns shown by animals when they are motivated by two or more conflicting drives at the same time. These drives may be hunger vs fear, aggression vs escape, or mating vs danger. Since the animal cannot perform both behaviours simultaneously, it shows a third kind of behaviour or a mix of both. These behaviours are commonly observed in social interactions, territorial fights, courtship displays, or predator avoidance.
The Four Main Types of Conflict Behaviours Are:
- Ambivalence Behaviour
- Displacement Behaviour
- Redirected Behaviour
- Successive Ambivalent Behaviour
These behaviours help animals avoid direct harm, conserve energy, and adapt to complex social or environmental pressures. They have strong evolutionary significance.
1. Ambivalence Behaviour
This occurs when two opposite motivations like attack and flight are equally strong. The animal shows mixed elements of both behaviours. For example, a dog may growl and show teeth (aggression) but also crouch or move backward (fear). Both tendencies are visible at the same time. This behaviour indicates internal hesitation and helps avoid direct confrontation.
2. Displacement Behaviour
When an animal cannot decide between two conflicting actions, it may show an unrelated activity. This is known as displacement behaviour. It is commonly seen in birds, cats, dogs and primates. For example, a bird facing a threat may start grooming its feathers or peck the ground. This activity has no direct connection to the conflict but serves as a release of tension or anxiety.
3. Redirected Behaviour
In this case, the animal redirects its behaviour towards a different target instead of the original cause. For example, if a monkey is threatened by a dominant one but cannot attack back, it may bite a nearby subordinate monkey or object. This helps release built-up aggression in a safer or socially acceptable way.
4. Successive Ambivalent Behaviour
In this behaviour, the animal performs the two opposing actions alternately in a repeated sequence. For example, a bird may move forward towards a rival, stop, move back, then again step forward. It reflects indecision and internal conflict between approach and avoidance. This type is frequently seen in courtship and dominance behaviour.
3. (i) Explain the interrelationship of altruism and inclusive fitness. (5 Marks)
Altruism is a behaviour where one organism helps another, even if it reduces its own chances of survival or reproduction. For example, in birds or mammals, sometimes individuals raise offspring that are not their own or give alarm calls to warn others of predators, putting themselves in danger. This seems disadvantageous in terms of Darwinian fitness, which is measured by an individual's own survival and reproductive success.
However, the concept of inclusive fitness was proposed by W.D. Hamilton in 1964, explains how such altruistic behaviour can evolve. He said that natural selection does not only favour behaviours that benefit an individual directly, but also those that help genetically related individuals. Inclusive fitness includes both:
- Direct fitness: Reproduction by the individual itself
- Indirect fitness: Help given to close relatives, which increases the survival of shared genes
Interrelationship Between Altruism and Inclusive Fitness
According to Hamilton, altruistic behaviour can evolve if the cost to the donor is less than the benefit to the recipient, multiplied by their genetic relatedness. This is called Hamilton's Rule:
r × B > C
where
- r is the genetic relatedness between the donor (helping individual or selfless individual) and recipient
- B is the reproductive benefit to the recipient
- C is the reproductive cost to the donor (helping individual or selfless individual)
For example, worker bees do not reproduce, but help the queen (their mother) raise more siblings. Though they sacrifice their direct fitness, they increase their inclusive fitness.
Another example is seen in ground squirrels where females give alarm calls to warn relatives. This puts the caller at risk but saves the family group, increasing indirect fitness.
So, altruism is not truly selfless in evolutionary terms. It helps in passing on genes indirectly through relatives, which is why it is favoured by natural selection under inclusive fitness theory.
(ii) What is reciprocal altruism? Explain with suitable examples. (5 Marks)
Reciprocal altruism is a type of cooperative behaviour where one individual helps another, with the expectation that the help will be returned in the future. This concept was first formally explained by Robert Trivers in 1971 in his paper "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism". It is observed mainly among non-related individuals and is based on repeated interactions, memory of past actions, and the cost-benefit balance of helping and receiving help.
This behaviour can evolve when the cost to the donor is less than the benefit to the recipient and both individuals have high chances of meeting again. Reciprocal altruism requires the ability to recognize individuals, remember past interactions and punish cheaters or non-reciprocators.
There are two well-known examples of reciprocal altruism:
A famous example of reciprocal altruism found in vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus). These bats often fail to feed every night. Studies, especially by Gerald Wilkinson in 1984, show that if one bat does not get blood, another bat that has successfully fed may regurgitate some blood to help the hungry bat survive. Later, when the roles are reversed, the earlier recipient may return the favour. This kind of mutual cooperation helps survival of the group.
Another good example is cleaner fish and their host fish. Cleaner wrasses (Labroides dimidiatus) feed on ectoparasites found on host or client reef fishes. The host or client fish allows the cleaner to enter its mouth and gill area. Both benefit and the relationship continues over repeated visits. If the cleaner fish cheats (by biting instead of cleaning), the host or client fish stops cooperating. This system works only because of memory and repeated interaction.
4. (i) Describe sperm competition and post-insemination tactics adopted by the males to ensure paternity. (5 Marks)
In many sexually reproducing species, especially where females mate with multiple males, the sperm from different males compete within the female reproductive tract to fertilize the eggs. This phenomenon is called sperm competition. Sperm competition is most commonly found in insects and also commonly observed in aquatic animals specially fexternally fertilizing fishes. The concept was first clearly defined by Geoff Parker in 1970, who proposed that sexual selection continues even after copulation through sperm-level competition. This has led to several evolutionary adaptations in males to improve their chances of paternity.
Post-Insemination Tactics Adopted by the Males to Ensure Paternity
Post-insemination tactics are behavioural or physiological strategies used by males after mating that help in increasing the chances of their own sperm achieving successful fertilization.
To ensure reproductive success, males have evolved the following post-insemination tactics:
1. Increased Sperm Production
Males of many species produce large quantities of sperm to increase the probability of fertilization. This is commonly seen in insects like Drosophila and mammals like primates.
2. Sperm Morphology and Motility
Males may produce sperm with better motility or specialized shapes that give them a competitive edge. For example, in rodents, sperm have hooks that allow them to form cooperative groups for faster movement.
3. Mate Guarding
Males stay close to the female after copulation to prevent other males from mating. This is observed in many bird species and dragonflies.
4. Copulatory Plugs
Some males deposit a gelatinous plug after mating that blocks the female's reproductive tract, making it harder for future males to inseminate her. This is common in rodents and some reptiles.
5. Sperm Removal
In some species, males remove or displace rival sperm before insemination. For example, in damselflies, males use specialized genital structures to scoop out stored sperm.
(ii) What is Brood Parasitism? Differentiate between intra and inter-species brood parasitism. (5 Marks)
Brood parasitism is a special reproductive strategy in which one organism, usually a bird, lays its eggs in the nest of another individual or species. The host raises the offspring of the parasite, often at the cost of its own young. This behavior is most commonly seen in birds like cuckoos and cowbirds, but it can also occur in certain insects and fish. Brood parasitism helps the parasitic parent save energy and avoid parental care responsibilities.
There are two main types of brood parasitism based on the relation between parasite and host: intraspecific brood parasitism and interspecific brood parasitism.
Differentiate Between Intra and Inter-Species Brood Parasitism
Intraspecific Brood Parasitism
This occurs when the parasite and the host belong to the same species. One individual lays its eggs in the nest of another individual of the same species. It is commonly observed in waterfowls like ducks and grebes. Since both are of the same species, the eggs usually look similar, making it difficult for the host to detect them.
Interspecific Brood Parasitism
In this type, the parasite and host belong to different species. A well-known example is the common cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) and the brown-headed cowbird (Molothrus ater). The parasitic eggs often mimic the appearance of the host's eggs, which means they look almost the same. This helps the parasite fool the host bird so that it does not recognize the egg as foreign. Sometimes, the parasitic egg hatches earlier and the young one behaves aggressively. For example, it may push out the host's eggs or chicks from the nest. Because of this, the host bird unknowingly takes care of the parasite's chick, while its own babies may be harmed, ignored or sometimes even die.
5. (i) What is "The Five Domains Model" of animal welfare ? Write its main advantages. (5 Marks)
The Five Domains Model of Animal Welfare is a scientifically structured framework designed to assess an animal's welfare by combining both physical health and emotional well-being. This model has now become widely used across farms, zoos, research labs and wildlife settings because it focuses on improving overall quality of life, not just survival or freedom from disease.
The model was originally proposed by David J. Mellor and C.J. W. Reid in 1994 to assess animal welfare beyond just physical health. The model has undergone significant updates over time, especially with contributions from Mellor and Beausoleil in the 2000s. In 2020, the model was further refined to place greater emphasis on the animal's affective (emotional) experiences, making it a more holistic tool for welfare evaluation.
The model includes the following five key domains:
1. Nutrition – Proper access to food and water to avoid hunger, thirst and malnutrition.
2. Environment – Safe and comfortable living conditions, including space, shelter, temperature and noise.
3. Health – Good physical condition, absence of injury, illness, or functional impairments.
4. Behaviour – Considers whether the animal can express natural behaviours like playing, grooming, or socializing.
5. Mental State – This domain results from all the other four and deals with the animal's emotional experiences such as fear, pleasure, pain, or comfort.
Advantages of this model include:
- It combines physical and emotional aspects, offering a complete welfare picture.
- It addresses both positive and negative experiences, not just suffering.
- It helps in setting clear welfare goals in real-world animal care.
- It's adaptable for use across different species and human-animal interaction contexts.
- It aligns scientific assessment with ethical responsibility in animal management.
(ii) Discuss the advantages of the five freedoms.(5 Marks)
The Five Freedoms are a foundational framework in animal welfare. These freedoms act as ethical guidelines to ensure the basic needs of animals are met in both farming and captive conditions. They were first proposed in 1965 by the Brambell Committee, led by Professor F. W. Rogers Brambell, after public concern over intensive farming practices in the UK. This was later formalised in 1979 by the Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), which became the Animal Welfare Committee (AWC) in 2011.
These five freedoms are:
- Freedom from hunger and thirst
- Freedom from discomfort
- Freedom from pain, injury, or disease
- Freedom to express normal behaviour
- Freedom from fear and distress
These freedoms have several important advantages in animal welfare science and policy:
- Holistic Framework: The model covers both physical and mental aspects of animal well-being, not just survival needs but also behavioural and emotional health. This helps ensure a complete welfare assessment.
- Practical Guidelines: It gives clear, understandable goals for animal care across farms, zoos, labs and even for pet owners. It forms a base for creating laws, standards and monitoring systems.
- Ethical Standards: It promotes ethical responsibility by recognising animals as sentient beings that deserve humane treatment.
- Adaptability: The model has been updated to suit modern understanding of animal emotions and needs. For example, the AWC in recent years has incorporated ideas of "positive experiences" rather than just avoiding suffering.
- Global Acceptance: It is widely accepted by governments, NGOs, veterinary groups and international bodies like the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), making it a universal reference in animal welfare discussions.
6. (i) Write the meaning of 'validity' and 'reliability' in the context of animal welfare assessment. (5 Marks)
In animal welfare assessment, different tests and tools are used to understand the physical and mental state of animals. For these tools to be useful, they must be valid and reliable. These two qualities ensure that the information we get is correct and trustworthy.
Validity
Validity means that the method or tool truly measures what it is supposed to measure. For example, if we are measuring stress in animals and we use heart rate as an indicator, then heart rate should increase when the animal is stressed. If it does not change, then the method is not valid. Validity can be of different types:
- Face validity: when the method seems logical and meaningful
- Construct validity: when the method is based on strong scientific ideas or models
- Criterion validity: when the method gives results similar to an already trusted method
Reliability
Reliability means that the method gives stable and consistent results when repeated under the same conditions. If the same person performs the test multiple times and gets the same result, or if two different people perform the same test and get similar results, the method is said to be reliable. Reliability is especially important in animal welfare assessment because animals cannot speak about their pain or stress. So, the observer's judgment plays a major role. A reliable method reduces personal bias and increases trust in the data collected. For example, if body condition scoring in cattle is used, it must give the same score when repeated, so that any welfare change can be truly measured. Without reliability, even a valid method becomes useless because the results will always vary.
(ii) What issues might conflict with the desire of zoos to provide good welfare for the species in their care? (5 Marks)
Zoos aim to give animals a safe and healthy environment where their physical and mental needs are fulfilled. They focus on animal welfare by providing food, medical care and clean enclosures. However, in many cases, zoos face several practical, ethical and biological challenges that conflict with their goal of giving proper welfare to the animals.
There are the following major problems that often conflict with the goal of animal welfare in zoos:
1. Lack of Natural Space
Most wild animals live in large areas in nature. But zoos have limited space. Big animals like elephants, tigers, giraffes etc cannot move freely in small cages or enclosures. This can cause boredom, stress and unnatural repetitive behaviours like pacing or over-grooming.
2. Social Isolation or Grouping Problems
Animals like lions, primates or birds have specific social needs. Some need large groups, while others prefer living alone. If zoos keep them in wrong social conditions, it leads to stress, aggression and loneliness.
3. Breeding and Overpopulation Issues
Zoos conduct captive breeding to protect endangered species. But sometimes more animals are born than the zoo can manage. This causes overcrowding or even culling (removal of extra animals), which raises ethical questions.
4. Visitor Disturbance and Noise
Many animals become stressed due to the constant presence of visitors. Flash photography, loud sounds, and tapping on glass affect animals' rest and comfort. Some animals hide or show anxious behaviour because of this.
5. Climate and Environmental Mismatch
Animals adapted to cold or specific environments, like polar bears or penguins, may suffer in regions with unsuitable climates. Zoos try to control temperature but it is not always effective in meeting all natural needs.
6. Limited Mental Stimulation
In the wild, animals spend time hunting, hiding and exploring. In zoos, when they don't get enough mental stimulation or environmental enrichment, they show signs of depression, inactivity or stress behaviours.
7. (i) What is "Resource Holding Potential" (RHP)? List some common attributes that affect RHP. (5 Marks)
Resource Holding Potential (RHP) is a concept in behavioural ecology that refers to an individual animal's ability to win fights or defend valuable resources such as territory, food, shelter or mates. The term was introduced by Geoff Parker in the 1974 during his studies on animal contests. RHP does not only mean physical strength but also includes various other traits that affect an individual's fighting capability. It is especially useful in understanding how animals decide whether to fight or retreat during competition.
Animals often assess their own RHP and also try to estimate the RHP of their opponents before engaging in fights. This is part of assessment strategies in conflict behavior. The one with higher RHP usually wins the contest and gains access to the resource.
There are the following common attributes that affect RHP:
- Body Size and Strength: Larger and stronger individuals usually have higher RHP as they can cause more damage in fights.
- Weapon Size or Structure: Presence of physical weapons like antlers in deer, claws in crabs or large mandibles in beetles increases RHP.
- Motivation Level: An individual with more need or desire for the resource may fight harder, even if physically weaker.
- Health and Energy Level: An animal in better health or higher energy condition has higher endurance, adding to its RHP.
- Age and Experience: Older or more experienced individuals may have better fighting strategies or psychological advantage.
(ii) Write about ethical considerations in genetic selection. (5 Marks)
Genetic selection is widely used in animal breeding to improve traits such as milk production, disease resistance, meat quality etc. While it plays a major role in increasing productivity and efficiency in livestock industries, it also brings important ethical concerns. These concerns are related to animal health, welfare, natural behavior and long-term genetic balance.
There are the following ethical concerns in genetic selection:
1. Animal Welfare Issues
When animals are selected for extreme traits, it can negatively affect their health. For example, fast-growing broiler chickens often suffer from leg deformities and heart problems. Similarly, cows selected for very high milk yield may face metabolic disorders and reproductive stress. These welfare problems show that genetic improvement should not compromise basic health and comfort of animals.
2. Loss of Genetic Diversity
When only certain individuals are repeatedly used for breeding, the genetic pool becomes narrow. This increases vulnerability to diseases and reduces adaptability to environmental changes, which may harm the entire population in the long run.
3. Impact on Natural Behaviour
Some traits selected for economic gain can interfere with normal behavior. For example, pigs bred for faster growth may show aggressive behavior or poor mothering. This affects their ability to live naturally and comfortably.
4. Moral Responsibility and Sustainability
Genetic selection must be guided by ethical responsibility. It should aim for sustainable practices where animal health, ecological balance, and long-term survival are not compromised just for profit.
8. (i) What is Animal Sentience ? Why is it important in animal welfare? (4 Marks)
Animal sentience means the ability of animals to feel, perceive, and experience emotions like pain, fear, joy and comfort. Sentient animals are not only aware of their surroundings but can also feel physical and emotional states. This concept has become an important part of animal welfare science. In 2012, a group of leading neuroscientists from around the world signed the Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness, which clearly stated that many non-human animals, including mammals, birds and even octopuses, have consciousness and can feel emotions. This declaration helped the scientific world accept that animals are not just living organisms but also sentient beings.
Why is Sentience Important in Animal Welfare?
Sentience is the base of animal welfare science. If an animal can feel pain or distress, then it becomes our ethical responsibility to reduce suffering and promote positive experiences. This is the reason why welfare assessment systems like the Five Freedoms and the Five Domains Model were created. They help animals live without suffering and allow them to experience good and positive feelings. Respecting sentience ensures that animals are treated as living beings with feelings, not just as biological machines.
For example, in farming, if animals are sentient, they should not be kept in crowded or harsh environments. In laboratories, their pain and fear during experiments must be minimized. Even in zoos or as pets, housing, food and care must consider emotional needs.
(ii) What is Deontology Ethical Theory ? How do deontological ethical views differ from consequentialist views? (6 Marks)
Deontology is a moral theory which says that an action is right or wrong based on whether it follows a set of moral duties or rules, not on the result it produces. This theory was mainly developed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the 18th century. According to deontological ethics, certain actions are always morally wrong, even if they lead to good outcomes. For example, lying or killing is always wrong, no matter what benefit it brings.
This approach is rule-based. It teaches that people have a duty to do what is morally right, and that every individual should be treated with respect. In the context of animal welfare, deontology supports the idea that animals have rights. So, using animals for experiments, painful training or harmful captivity is seen as wrong because it violates their basic moral rights, even if it helps human society.
How Do Deontological Views Differ from Consequentialist Views?
Deontological ethics is very different from consequentialist ethics. In deontology, the focus is on the action itself. If the action goes against a moral rule, then it is wrong, no matter what result it produces. But consequentialism (especially utilitarianism) says that the moral value of an action depends on its consequences. If the outcome brings more good than harm, then the action is right.
For example, under consequentialism, harming one animal to save ten may be acceptable. But under deontology, it is still wrong because harming even one innocent being breaks a moral rule. So, the key difference is that deontology is duty-based, while consequentialism is result-based.
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